29 years of service to numismatics

Volume 29 Number 1 ISSN: 0197-3088 Price .... Two Dollars

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FEATURE ARTICLES

The Casting of a Cash Coin, by Chris Shappell 21

The Recall of Romania’s Nickel Coinage, by Peter S. Horvitz 19

The Wako in Japanese Coinage History, by Francis J. Gerner 7

DEPARTMENTS

Book News & Reviews 23

From the Mailbox 5

Member Notice Page 24

INSIDE N.I.

Donations Report 3

Librarian’s Report — 3

Membership Chairman’s Report 3

OTHER ITEMS

The Australian Fantasy Crown, by Mike Davis — 6

"Cabes" and "Boss" 20

"Denga" 4

"Ebenezer" 5

The "Habitant" Tokens of Canada — 20

Mule 5

Ribbons on Arms of USSR Coins 24

"Umpyo" 20

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Copyrighted by Numismatics International, P.O. Box 670013, Dallas, Texas USA 75367-0013

JANUARY 1994

BOARD OF GOVERNORS

	DR. HOWARD L. FORD Chairman & Past-President
JOHN E. VANDIGRIFF President	PHILIP BRANDENBURG Vice-President
ROSS SCHRAEDER Secretary 214-995-4921 D 214-237-4347 N	DON DOUGLAS Treasurer
CRAIG BURRUS At-Large Director	WALTER W. LEONARD At-Large Director
WILLIAM E. BENSON JACK E. LEWIS ELMORE B. SCOTT	MARVIN L. FRALEY PHILIP LAWRENCE CHARLES MUCHMORE ROBERT W. RICHTER WILLIAM B. THOMPSON CARL YOUNG Past-Presidents
	APPOINTED STAFF

Curator, NI REFERENCE COLLECTION Publicity Chairman

Philip L. Lawrence Stuart T. Eisen

Phone 301-530-5400

Curator, JOHN GRAVES MEMORIAL PAPER MONEY COLLECTION

David Block P. O. Box 12473 Gainesville, FL 32604 Editor, NI BULLETIN	Librarian, NI BOOK LIBRARY Granvyl G. Hulse, Jr. 30 Pleasant St. Colebrook, NH 03576
Marvin L. Fraley 2813 - 57th SL Lubbock, TX 79413-5606 Phone 806-795-7623 Book News & Reviews Editor NI BULLETIN	Librarian, NI PERIODICAL LIBRARY Jim Haley P. O. Box 4057 St. Johnsbury, VT 05819
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Joseph Uphoff La Jolla, CA Index Compiler, NI BULLETIN Dick Schubert Denver, CO	Moderator, NI EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS William F. Spengler 2032 Ridgeway Colorado Spring, CO 80906

Correspondence should be directed to those persons and addresses above for departments indicated. All other correspondence should be mailed direct to NUMISMATICS INTERNATIONAL, P. O. BOX 670013, DALLAS, TEXAS 75367-0013.

MEMBERSHIP FEES: Individual & Club Memberships - $15.00 Annually. Junior Membership (18 years of age and under) - $10.00 Annually. Senior Membership (70 years of age and older) - $10.00 Annually.

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INSIDE N.I

MEMBERSHIP CHAIRMAN’S REPORT

January, 1994 Applications for Membership: The following persons have applied for membership. If no written objections are received by March 1, 1994, then- membership will become effective on that date.

2430 Leslie L. Crawley, Sr., 5929 So. Atlanta, Tulsa, OK 74105-7545

2431-MT John L. Reeves, 1 1531 Cromwell Circle, Dallas, TX 75229

(World Flora & Fauna, World Females, European Gold (Kings & Queens)

DONATIONS REPORT

We have received the following donations since the last report.

Name	Donation	Preference of Use
BORKOWSKI, Ken	$5.00 Cash	NI BULLETIN Fund
BRUCK, Frederick	$25.00 Cash	General Operating Fund
COLES, Peter James	$20.00 Cash	NI Library Fund
DONOHUE, Bruce	$5.00 Cash	General Operating Fund
DROST, Fred	$15.00 Cash	NI BULLETIN Fund
DUERFELDT, P. H.	$10.00 Cash	NI Library Fund
EISEN, Stuart	$10.00 Cash	General Operating Fund
FUTAHASAHI, Hideo	$5.00 Cash	General Operating Fund
HINKLE, David	$50.00 Cash	General Operating Fund
HOGE, Robert W.	$5.00 Cash	General Operating Fund
HUNTER, Robert	$15.00 Cash	General Operating Fund
KULES, George	$10.00 Cash	General Operating Fund
LINN, Kenneth M.	$10.00 Cash	General Operating Fund
MAIER, Michael	$5.00 Cash	NI Library Fund
MAJOR, W. H.	$5.00 Cash	General Operating Fund
ORLOWSKI, Frank	$5.00 Cash	NI Library Fund
SCHOTT, Donald	$15.00 Cash	General Operating Fund

LIBRARIAN’S REPORT

I. Acknowledgement is made below to those who have donated material to the NI Library:

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American Numismatic Society

US40.MosP: 1992:MACC MOSSMAN, PHILIP L.

Money of the American Colonies and Confederation. A numismatic, economic and historical correlation. ANS Numismatic Studies, No. 20.

Pub. 1992, 314pp., illus.

Dennis J. Kroh

B A45 . KroD : 1 993 : ACRR KROH, DENNIS J.

Ancient coin reference reviews. (Roman, Greek, and Byzantine references cataloged.)

Pub. 1993, 107pp, not illus.

II. In addition to the above the Library would like to thank John L. Pieratt for continuing to locate and provide us with additional material on Hell Bank Notes.

Granvyl G. Hulse, Jr., Book Librarian James D. Haley, Periodical Librarian

"DENGA"

The "Denga", also called "Tenga" and "Denuschka", are Russian terms that came to mean money in general. The word "Denga" was first applied to the small silver coins that were struck by the Dukes of Moskow and Kiev as early as the second half of the fourteenth century, and subsequently by the free cities of Novgorod and Pskof. These Dengi coins were intended for circulation among the Tartars of eastern Russia, and thus the style and denomination of the Tartar money was naturally adopted. The form of these coins is generally small, oblong and irregular, but nearly circular specimens have been found. In most instances these rather crude coins bear a portrait of the ruler or that same personage on horseback with a spear or lance. The Denga was divided into Half Denga pieces and one quarter pieces called "Poluschkas". The name "Poluschka" is traceable to the early Russian custom of using animal skins as money, and is derived from "Potu", the half of any article, and "Schkura", a skin. Two "Poluschki" then represented the value of one hare skin.

Later issues of these types of coins are of billon and copper and the value of the Denga degenerated into that of the Half Kopek. A copper "Para", or three Dengi piece, was struck by Catherine II or Russia in 1771 and 1772 for circulation in Moldavia and Wallachia.

(Submitted by R. R. Kutcher)

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FROM THE MAILBOX

Other theories on " The Possible Origin of the $ Sian"

The attribution suggested by Mr. Wolfgang Bertsch ("The Possible Origin of the $ Sign", NI Bulletin , October, 1993, p.240 ) has been discarded as improbable by many authorities including Eric Newman who presented a thoroughly documented slide presentation about the origin of the dollar (peso) sign two or three years ago in the ANA Numismatic Theatre program.

In 1965, Alvaro J. Moreno published a book in Mexico entitled $ EL SIGNO DE PESOS.

Both Newman and Moreno mention all the theories and conclude that the sign evolved from the abbreviation for pesos (ps).

The $ sign was used in the American colonies for almost half a century before appearing in Mexico. Moreno says 1775. He also states "The transition of ps to our actual peso sign $ was not made by Spaniards; it originated with English-speaking people who had contacts with them" (My translation.)

The earliest Mexican document that I have been able to locate bearing the $ sign is dated 1822. It is reproduced on page 43 of the book CASA DE MONEDA DE MEXICO - PRESENCIA EN EL MUNDO 1536-1990. Editorial Miguel Angel Porrua. Mexico. D.F. 1990.

Clyde Hubbard Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico

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"EBENEZER"

A variety of the Double Krone, or piece of 8 Marks, struck by Frederick HI of Denmark was called an "Ebenezer". These coins were issued to commemorate the unsuccessful attempt of the Swedes to take Copenhagen on February 11, 1659. The obverse has the King’s initials crowned, with the inscription "DOMINVS PROVIDEBIT and EBENEZER", with the latter word referring to the memorial stone mentioned in First Samuel, of the Bible. On the reverse is a hand grasping at a crown which is being severed from the arm by a sword. Here the motto reads "SOLI DEO GLORIA".

(Submitted by R. R. Kutcher)

*********************************************************************

MULE

A Mule, or Hybrid, is a coin, token or medal whose obverse die is not matched with its official or regular reverse die.

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THE AUSTRALIAN FANTASY CROWN

Mike Davis, Piqua, Ohio, Nl it 2392

I recently discovered an unusual similarity between two coins that have different designers a half a world apart. They have the same date, denomination, metal content, and most unusual, almost the same design.

One of the coins is the 1967 Canadian Dollar, issued for the centennial of the Confederation, depicting a Canadian goose in flight. It was designed by Alex Colville, and was minted at Ottawa in silver.

The other "coin" is the Australian Fantasy Dollar, issued privately in 1967 by the Australian Coin Review (a monthly coin magazine). This came about through a design contest. It depicts a goose or swan in flight.

This coin was designed by Andor Meszaros, and was minted by John Pinches of London, England. There were 1500 struck in uncirculated and 750 in proof. The issue price for these was A$ 10.35 until November, 1968.

Since the first official Australian dollar coin was struck in 1984, 1 would say that this coin was seventeen years ahead of its time.

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THE WAKO IN JAPANESE COINAGE HISTORY

Francis J. Gemer, Topeka , Kansas, NI # 1085

Chinese = Wok’on or Wo-k’ou Korean = Woe-ku: "Stunted man, dwarf

Japanese = Wako; "Wa-" = "Japanese", "-ko" = "invaders", eventually: "robbers" (Japanese invaders, robbers)

Japanese pirates have, like their Western counter-parts, impacted the history of nations. In Europe there were the English "Sea Dogs", Dutch "Freebooters", and the amalgam "Buccaneers" in America’s Caribbean Sea. In the Far East, the name to fear was "Wako".

The height of operation for the Japanese pirates was essentially between the years of 1300 and 1520; however, the history of Japanese piracy greatly preceded their name by centuries. It was during the Ming period of China that they played a major role in the currency history of Japan as well as the political history of China. The "first" reported "Wo-k’ou" raid, according to Kwan-wai So, was in 1223; Yosaburo Takekoshi (earlier translated work spells it Takegoshi) reported it as a (Wako) raid against China in 1369. However, both agree that Japanese pirates were raiding the Korean coast in the 13th century regardless of name. As to these sea adventurers, they called themselves Kaizoku (navy).

Essentially, during the Ashikaga period (1338-1573) Japan opened large foreign intercourse with Korea and China with the intent to import copper coins while the central government ignored their production, as well as to introduce coins of silver and gold. Some claim that the Wako were part of the state’s effort to obtain those silver and gold coins without benefit of trade. Though during this period there was no one firm, central government in control of the Japanese nation, perhaps the Wako were at times the informal naval arm of local lords.

The existence of raw materials in Japan did not necessitate the actual production of coins though the technical knowledge may have been there since the seventh century. Gold and silver was being produced by the mines on Sado-shima for trade with the Chinese Empire to secure copper and silver coins from the Ming Emperors (1368- 1644) in legal trade. On the other hand what constituted legal trade seemed to be at variance at times, regarding who was trading with whom at the actual transaction level irrespective of what governments were saying.

It is generally concluded that a portion of the history of the Wako is closely associated with the history and growth to power of the Ouchi family of Kyushu. Other families were also to benefit and gain power such as the Hosokawa clan. However, that does not mean that full control was a matter of fact over the former. Pirate alliances were frequently ones of convenience for all concerned, and many Wako fleets and crews were reportedly composed of one-third Chinese (and probably some Koreans, Formosans, and Loochoo/Okinawan sailors). According to other reports the Japanese constituted only 30% and the remainder Chinese! The

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composition was never secure, economic times and political winds dictated the temporary careers of many.

The following is a brief overview of the impact and history of the Wak5 in Japanese coinage. Few contemporary records outside of the Chinese and Korean sources exist; as to the actual coinage quantities or nature of the loot, it can only be described in general terms. Like all pirates, they maintained no bookkeeping records for posterity.

500 - 700 AD

593-641

Chinese coins (Wu-chu) imported to Japan through good will ambassadors from Liu Sung, Wei, and Liang Empires. (Fig. 1)

Fig. 1. Liu Sung Coin Fig. 2. T’ang Coin

(424-454 AD) (618-907 AD )

655-671 T’ang dynasty coins brought to Japan. (Fig. 2) 683 Copper coins authorized to be used.

708 Birth of Japanese coins with discovery of copper and minting of

"Wado kaichin"; silver coins authorized June 3rd and copper coins 2 months later ("Wado-kaiho" inscription). (Fig. 3)

Fig. 3. Wado-kaiho

709 Private minting of silver coins prohibited.

710 Use of silver coins prohibited.

724-748 Emperor Shomu prompted the building of Kokubunji Daibutsu by the use of melted coins, a practice followed by other succeeding generals and emperors.

8

As old as recorded history, coastal areas evolve robbers at sea and Japan presented no unusual history in this light. In time it was exposed to the advanced culture of China and adopted the economic benefits of coinage. Though predominately maintaining bartering over most of the Islands, the official recognition of and use of coins begins early in its historical contact with other nations. Japan not only accepted Chinese coins but began to mint its own and entered into the world of international trade.

700 - 1000 AD

5/936 The ambitious Sumitomo Nagayoshi Fujiwara, Governor of Iyo

Province, organized the robbers along the coast and headquartered at Hiburishima, attacking and plundering ships.

6/937 Yoshihiko Ki, new Governor of Iyo was ordered to chastise the pirates.

938 Ki’s approach of leniency broke the power of Sumitomo but then

Masakado Taira raised an army and disrupted the order of the land and Sumitomo attacked Vice-Governor Kokate Fujiwara of Bizen and subdued him.

940 Masakado killed by Sadamori Taira & Hidesato Fujiwara; imperial

court ordered Yoshifuru Ono and Prince Mototsune to attack Sumitomo; the latter captured the mint at Suwo, attacked Yahata-gun Tosa, Sanuki and Awa, Bingo.

4/94 1 Sumitomo attacked and captured Dazaifu (Kyushu); Y oshifuru attacked

at Hakata and beat Sumitomo (who then went to Iyo where he was killed).

4/958 Engi-tsuho ceased to be minted, new coins to be inscribed Kengen-

taiho (last officially minted coins of central government until 1591).

987 Those who refused to use money (in Japan) were admonished; coins

predominated in urban areas, government’s encouragement as means to increase circulation and to collect taxes in convenient form.

During this period the use of coins is expanded in the economy and becomes a measure of wealth. With wealth is power and with power, power struggles. Piracy becomes a major concern and seems to become organized during this period. Initially, attempts are made to destroy the robbers (pirates). Again, as reflected throughout history where there are power struggles, a fine line is drawn between the legal leaders and those who exhibit a form of power (strength at sea), alliances evolve as leaders attempt to extend their areas of control and expand their base of wealth.

1000 - 1300 AD

1072 Emperor Shirakawa has 3000 Buddha statues cast, shortages in coins

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created and trade with Tang and Sung China encouraged; Chinese coins "over appreciated", driving Japanese coins to be devalued. (Fig. 4)

Fig. 4. Engi Tsuho (907 AD)

1105 Wako occupy Miyakojima in the LooChoo (Okinawa) Islands.

1193 Emperor Toba prohibited circulation of foreign coins (Northern and

Southern Sung were so plentiful in circulation Gresham’s law operates). (Figs. 5 and 6)

Fig. 5. Northern Sung Fig. 6. Southern Sung

(1119 AD) (1127 AD)

1223	First Wako raid on Korean soil. Followed by intermittent raids through to 1230.
1261	Emperor Kameyama and Shogun Hojo Tokimune agree to send envoy to China to obtain coin.
1265	Japanese pirates decrease impacting coast of Korea due to Mongol conquest and strength.
1276	Korean King Kyobin, with 5 divisions, defeated in (last?) battle in Genra Province by pirates.
1290	By this time Regent Hojo Tokimune attempts to buy Southern Sung coins with gold.
Drought and famine spreads across Japan (1222, 1224, 1225, 1257) and food shortages cause occasional cannibalism. Many of the raiders seeking relief from the

perils of starvation and the Shokyu War were from Tsushima and Matsura with some from Kyushu. Economic demands for coins increased as the central government ceases minting but demands taxes to be collected in coin, even in outlying areas away from the capital. Supply and demand factors appear to motivate the seafarers to go abroad for food supply and "trading materials", distribution of wealth in coastal areas

in

had become constricted. Hence, with the decrease of coin availability, trade goods and coins could only be obtained through pirating, and the production of ersatz copies, e.g. "shima-sen". The latter were localized productions with diverse inscriptions, replacing perhaps one of the original Chinese characters and are somewhat scarce. This was also the period for the start of the bita-sen (Fig. 7) manufacture, an effort to make more accurate copies of the Chinese coins of the 1 1th century.

1300 - 1400 AD

1336 Official trade with China discontinues but semi-official trade (Tenryu

Temple Trade) initiated to secure funds to build temple dedicated to Emperor Go-Daigo. (This lasts until 1368.)

1338 During the Ashikaga period (1338-1573) the central government tended

to neglect coinage though public usage existed and relied on imported coins, pirate plunder, privately minted, debased, and/or counterfeited Chinese coins.

1350 Wako increase raids on Korea; February raid on Kucheng and Chulin

cost 300 Wako lives. An April raid of 100 pirate ships is made on Nanking and another Chinese city.

1360 Prior to 1364 Ouchi Hiroyo (father of Ouchi Yoshiro) resisted

Ashikawa Yoshimitsu and as governor of Suwo presented tens of thousands of Yuan dynasty Chinese coins (Fig. 8 and probably including Southern Sung type. Fig. 9) as gifts though Suwo had little arable land from which to earn money.

Fig. 8. Yuan/Mongol Fig. 9. Southern Sung

(1351 AD) (1225 AD)

1363 Wako invade Kojeto Island (Korea) and enter into a peace accord with

Korean government.

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1367

One year before Ashikaga Yoshimitsu succeeded to the Shogunate, Korea sends two emissaries to Japan regarding suppression of pirates attacking the port of Gappo; friendly intercourse with China becomes important but not committed to for over 30 years (1401).

1368-1398 Hung-wu (1st Ming Emperor) attempts to get Japan to curtail Wako activity in exchange of receiving tribute, he promised to repatriate captured pirates and offered "support" from Chinese court (efforts failed as the Shogun and Prince Kanenaga, military governor of Kyushu, both reject submission to the Ming throne as demanded). Raids against Korean coast continues, forcing the move of the capital in 1376 from Seoul to Tyolwon (?) (or Tetsugen). Approximately 378 raids on Korean coast between 1375-1388.

1380 Diplomatic relations between China and Japan terminated until 1400-1.

1384 (?) Ouchi Yoshihiro (1355-1400) attempts invasion of Korea; receives Korean tribute to cease "invasions" (Wako raids), tributes extend into Yoshioki’s rule.

1388 Ashikaga Yoshimitsu requests open trade with Ming Emperor, who

then designates Yoshimitsu as "King of Japan" (calls himself a subject of the Ming throne).

1393 Shimazu family, controlling the Wako of the Kyushu coast, collect

taxes in copper money.

During this century the island kingdom of Japan undergoes a major change in its trading needs. Greater contact with Korea and China created a source for coinage to Japan in exchange for Japanese products (sulphur, fans, lacquer-works, and swords). A more complex economy was evolving in Japan, a greater reliance on coins over a larger area and in more types of transactions. Attempts to make the Japanese produced coins a little unique, some bita-sen were the product of an altered Chinese coin where a part of the character was changed. (See: Jones).

1400 - 1500

1400 Yoshihiro transports his army to his "merchant" port of Sakai by sea

to confront the Shogun, but is defeated and killed; official trade issues: Japanese tribute to Ming China has value 10 x as much as prescription tribute established at 34,700 kan*; Japanese insisted on another 10,000 kan, Chinese added 1,500 coins (1-1/2 kan); Chinese fleet strongest in the Eastern world.

* Kan = 1,000 mon = 8.2672 lbs.

1404 Yung-lo (1402-24, 3rd Ming Emperor) arranged with Yoshimitsu for

two Japanese trade ships every 10 years to visit China and in return China will return "gifts" of copper coins to control the pirates; 6

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embassies were sent from Japan instead of one.

1410

1411

7/20/1419

1420

1424

1432

1434

1435

Again 6 embassies were sent instead of one; agreement changed to three ships every 10 years. The kentoshi (temporary envoy to China) opened the trading opportunities; diplomatic officials lost their political role and became commercial agents by the role of middle-man for trade items (swords, gold, silver, sulphur for copper coins); Wako at times presented as merchants, but because of strict restrictions on trade regular merchants at times became adventurers (acting like Wako); traders were replaced by smugglers who met to exchange goods in Formosa.

"Kyo-sen" (Kyoto minted) became "bad" (depreciated) coin as those of all others minted in Japan when Chinese coins called Eiraku, a Japanese translation of "Yung-lo", became common in Japan. Some claim the depreciated coins were those of Soma, Ohashu Province. The Yung-lo "dated" coins (Fig. 10) had a higher rate of acceptance. The Wako became the primary source for "good" coins.

Fig. 10. Yung-lo (1402-24)

Shogun Yoshimochi denies responsibility for pirates to Ming Emperor but "would try to enforce the law."

W'ako raid with 30 ships and 2000 men defeated at Kinchow (Liaotung).

Trade goods from Japan valued at 217,000 cash plus equal amount in silver arrives in China, Chinese offer 34,700+ taels and traders accept but negotiate for and get additional 10,000 cash.

Beginning of sending 1 1 embassies with 9 ships instead of 3 to China, China asks "why?". Ships return to Japan with 30,000,000 coins. Meanwhile Ouchi Yoshinori promises to take steps to suppress Wako.

Official mission of trade sent to China but returns without the expected 30,000,000 coins.

Chinese fleet rotting at the docks; Emperor Yung-lo focuses on looking inward (landward) and ignores rest of the world (seaward) after the successes of Admiral Chung-Ho demonstrated the power and extent of the Imperial fleet.

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1438

Wako raid: T’ai-chou and Ningpo prefectures, and city of Ch’ang-kuo.

1440-1500 Iron coins (Akusen = "bad coin", Fig. 11) appear and principally used around Kyoto; lead coins in Ise; Eiraku-sen in Hakata and Sakai (Wako centers). The Aku-sen were particularly a poor quality bita-sen.

Fig. 11. Akusen

1443 Wako raid Kainei (this and 1438 raids were joint Chinese- Japanese

pirate efforts.

8/1451 Priest Inho (enjoy to Ming court) reported in diary the fear of the

coastal Chinese of Japanese traders, often running away believing them to be pirates. Four of the ten ships on official mission to China are sponsored by local lords of Western Japan.

1453 China sends 50,000 strings of cash (50,000,000 coins) to Japan (aboard the 1451 mission ships). Some report the ships contained 60,000,000, which included the 30,000,000 not sent in the earlier 1434 ships.

1454 Ming Emperor advised to ship large quantity of cash (coin) to Japan as it did between 1403-23.

1457 Yoshimasa pleads for more cash (in need of financial support).

1457-1465 First major effort made of smuggling into China by Japanese by invitation of Chinese "traders".

1467-1477 Onin Wars create power struggles in Japan; no central government in full control/power, local feudal lords contend for expansion of realms.

1477 Sh5gun Yoshimasa requests extra cash and receives 50,000 Kan from

Ming China.

1480 Messages from Ashikaga Yoshimasa requesting an additional 100,000

kan (100,000,000 coins) of cash from China.

1491-1493 Keigo (Chief Envoy to the Ming Court) attempts to negotiate value of trade swords supplied by Japan, Ming set value at 300 mon, Keigo sets value at 1800 mon as part of tribute in exchange for silver coin; threatens the court that if he couldn’t get the rate then maybe the pirates couldn’t be controlled.

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The power of the Wako becomes a major threat to China, it no longer involves isolated raids on shipping or forays on small coastal villages. A national policy in Japan is formulated so as to use the pirates rather than eliminate them, though at times such "use" was to ignore them as outlaws, or to witness them to be naval auxiliary forces of local lords (a shadow of legitimacy), or view them as lawful traders who were cheated and branded by the cheaters as outlaws. International trading and diplomacy whereby China is the less powerful becomes evident; the "Middle Kingdom" was usually in the position to direct other nations, it is apparent it could no longer dictate conditions without devastating cost.

1500 - 1600

1504 Famine in Aizu (Tohoku region) brings price of 1 sho (1,400 grams)

of rice to 100 sen in Chinese coin (Takuan Tung Pao), a Sung dynasty coin suggesting the source of local currency to be Tohoku Wako who obtained it during the Sung period. (Fig. 12)

Fig. 12. Ta Kuan (1107-11 AD)

1505 Both Ouchi Yoshioki (1477-1528) and Shogun Ashikaga Yoshizumi

send envoys to Ming Court, the former as "Governor of Southern Japan"; conflict between envoys as to "authority" leads to fighting and ultimate raids by returning Wako (Ouchi’ s forces) enroute to Japan; Ouchi’s attempt to extract tribute failed, imposes "trading tax" on incoming ships and raids China when the trade becomes unfavorable.

1508 Ouchi Yoshioki installs Ashikaga Yoshitane as Sho-gun and becomes

Regent (Kanryo) for 1 1 years; presents money to Hongwanji temple in Osaka; has sufficient money to fund armies to expand realm from 3 provinces to 7 and impact Shogunate.

1520 Ouchi advised by War Minister Murakami of need for ships to invade

Korea (Wako of Sanuki region enlisted); independently, Ouchi invades Korea and demands tribute as part of peace proposal from Zenra Province; Japanese composition of Wako crews still dominate but decline setting in as Chinese crew members increase.

1523 Ouchi and Hosokawa families send "envoys" to Ming Court; Shusetsu

Gendo represented the Ouchi family and So Sokyo the Hasakawas.

1536 Ouchi Yoshitaka (1507-51) contributed a large amount of coin to the

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1540

1541

1544

1545

1549

1550

1552

1553

1554

1555

1557

1563

Imperial Court (paid for the coronation of the Emperor Go-Nara); Ouchi family controls sufficient trade between China, Korea, and Japan to send trade negotiators as if on behalf of the government of Japan; their "trading" wealth enable them to send more than 1,000 kan (1 million mon) of coin every year to the Imperial Court in Kyoto.

Beginning of rise in copper mine output and export to China brings coins from China; silver also exported for copper Chinese coins; famine in China drive many into piracy; Ouchi again sends "envoy" to Chinese court; term "Wo" applied to any and all pirates regardless of "nationality" or origin.

Japanese pirates led by a Chinese named Wang Chih (Ochoku in Japanese), made Fukue of Goto Islands headquarters; invited by Takanobu Matsuura to Hirado to set up residence at Miyanomachi; Ochoku referred to self as "King of Ki"; Central Government essentially powerless.

Most Wako leaders appear to be Chinese "traders" who recmit poor from Japanese coastal area, or leaders of marauding bands terrorizing their own countrymen; composition of Wako decidedly less Japanese (20-30%) and not having Japan as source of origin.

Ming Emperor prohibits trade with Japan due to Wako.

Ouchi sends another "envoy" to Ming Court.

Ochoku ’s power peaks but Portuguese guns begin to turn the tide and displace Ochoku.

Huang-yen (Chekiang Province) falls to 10,000 Wako!

Ochoku threatens to invade China on 1,000 mile front, at the same time!

1,900 Wako killed in one battle by Commander of War Minister, Chang Chi.

Portuguese begin to rid the seas of pirates; largest number of pirate raids (34) made on Chinese coast; raid on Cholla Province (Korea) leads to suspended relations with Japan.

Fall of Ouchi family from power with the suicide of Yoshinage (?- 1557) after defeat by invading samurai under daimyo Mori Motonari.

A pirate reported a raid that included 7 bands: 1,300 men, 137 vessels plus 600 fisherman (auxiliary crew?), including 200-300 Chinese fellow pirates.

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1567-1572 Wako activities begin to gradually decline.

1575 Japanese mined gold goes into coins. (Fig. 13)

Fig. 13. Tenshonago Oban (1575) (reduced size)

1582 Wako excursions into Philippine waters; 26 ships under a leader named

Taifusa repulsed by artillery.

1588 Hideyoshi conquered Kyushu and ordered an end to piracy.

1591 Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi attempts to reinstate central government

minting with gold coins (Tensho Oban) and silver coin (Suruga Ginban) two years later.

1600 Japan unified under Tokugawa Ieyasu; first centralized copper coinage

Fig. 14. Keicho Tsuho (1606)

During the mid-1500’s free trade and officially licensed trade became confusing as it frequently depended on the official and his whim (?). The Ming throne may have insisted on limited, licensed trade at fixed times but on other levels a quasi-legal trade existed between Japan and China.

The contemporary Chinese records appear to be the primary source for research for this historical period and they clearly indicated traders and officials encouraged imports from Japan; at times only the Chinese traders did the encouraging! From the view of some officials in Ming China those who were not licensed were the "Wako" (regardless if they were not sea-borne). It was not unusual for the Chinese trader to join, if not lead, the Wako when in disagreement with officials as to legal/licensed trading to avoid punishment and continue "business". The idea apparently was if you did trade illegally you were going to be punished so why not just jump into the shipping, raiding, and trading whole hog, you can oniy hang (or lose your head) once. The Wako were no longer a "Japanese" force (as few as 20% of a raiding force might be Japanese) and no longer only a band of sea robbers. The Ming throne was being threatened primarily not by outsiders from the sea but from within and from the north (Manchu).

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When Japan was exporting silver to China they would wait off shore until permission to land was granted, meanwhile the onshore traders were also waiting. It was easier to beat the bureaucrats by smuggling so "trade" agreements were made regardless and Wako become traders and the traders Wako.

As in 1814, pirates and leaders formulated an alliance to achieve a military and political end when Jean Lafitte and Gen. Andrew Jackson defeated a superior force in the Battle of New Orleans. Lafitte provided the much needed artillery and powder, as well as trained fighters. The Wako and the Japanese daimyos were often in the same situation of scratching each others backs. In Japan that helped to bring about a supply of coins in a new and growing economy. It can be seen that the Wako ceased to play a role in Japan’s economy once minting of coins was re-established, the government was centralized, new sea powers appeared (the Spanish and Portuguese), and the weak Ming dynasty fell. Some even claim that the "Wako" were a major contributor to demise of the Ming.

During the late Wako period (1400-1500) local lords attempted to issue their own coins but few were successful in maintaining a mint for an extended period of time. The "bita-sen", a copy of the more popular Eirakusen (a generic term by some authors for all imported Chinese coins, even those prior to Yung-lo), varied much in quality.

The Central Government of Japan brought large quantities into the island kingdom to establish its economic power base as well as to contribute to a more advanced economic system. However, coin circulation would seem to be limited during the unsettled political conditions. Thus, the main source for coins in the medieval period of Japan for the outlying areas, away from the capital where feudal lords who were engaged in power struggles and where international contacts were made (Western Japan), was from the traders and Wako.

Bibliography:

Brown, Delmer M., "Money Economy in Medieval Japan"; Far Eastern Association Monograph #7; Yale University, New Haven, CT (1951).

Hazard, B. H., "The Formative Years of the Wako - 1223-63"; Monumenta Nipponica, XXII (Jan. 67), pp.260-77.

Jacobs, Norman and Vermeule, Cornelius III, "Japanese Coinage"; Numismatic Review , New York (1972).

Japanese Coin and Money Association, Japanese Coin and Money Catalogue, 1983. Jones, Michael, Catalog of Japanese Cash Coinage ; privately printed, 1985. Jorgensen, Holger, Old Coins of China, A Guide to Their Identification', 1962 Reprint. Papinot, E., Historical & Geographical Dictionary of Japan', Ch. E. Tuttle Co., Vermont (1974 reprint of 1910 ed.).

So, Kwan-wai, Japanese Piracy in Ming China During the 16th Century-, Michigan University Press (1975).

Takekoshi, Yosoburo, The Story of the Wako', Kenkyusho Ltd., Tokyo (1942?).

, The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan, Vol. 1,2,3;

Dawsons of Pall Mall, London (1967).

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THE RECALL OF ROMANIA’S NICKEL COINAGE

Peter S. Horvitz, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, NI # 2215

Between 1936 and 1938 Romania issued a series of coins in pure nickel. The series consisted of 100 Lei coins dated 1936 and 1938 (KM #54) and 50 Lei coins dated 1937 and 1938 (KM #55).

The 100 Lei coins have a diameter of 27 millimeters, weight 8.2 grams, and were struck by the Bucharest mint. Their obverse shows the bare head of King Carol II facing left. The obverse legend is CAROL II REGELE ROMANILOR. The signature of the engraver, I. Jalea, appears under the neck. The reverse shows the crowned small coat of arms of Romania separating the denomination of 100 and LEI, surrounded by a wreath of oak and laurel. The date, 1936 or 1938, appears at the bottom. The 1936 coinage had an issue of 20,230,000. The 1938 issue was much smaller, only 3,250,000. These figures are according to recent editions of Krause- Mishler. Earlier editions of Krause-Mishler and Modern Romanian Coins 1867-1966, by Aurelio Rauta (Salamanca, 1974) give the figure for the 1936 issue as 16,675,000. The edge of all these coins is reeded with a wavy line and two stars.

The 50 Lei coins measure 24 millimeters, weight 5.83 grams, and were also struck in Bucharest. The obverse shows the head of King Carol II in the helmet of the Royal Guard facing left. The legend is the same as on the 100 Lei coin. This coin was also engraved by I. Jalea, but is not signed. The reverse is the same as the 100 Lei coin except for the denomination. The dates at the bottom are 1937 and 1938. The 1937 issue was 12,000,000. The 1938 issue was 8,000,000.

These coins were popular with the Romanian public because of the beauty of their designs, their brilliant surfaces, and their endurance. However, the public was soon disappointed when the government ordered the coins recalled.

Shortly after the 1938 issue of these coins, it was realized that these coins, pure nickel as they were, were an excellent resource for a critical war material which suddenly, with increased German aggression, seemed a critical need. According to Rauta’ s original figures, 86% of the entire issue was recovered. According the Krause- Mishler’s revised figures, 84% of the 50 Lei coins and 73% of the 100 Lei coins were recovered.

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In preparation for the smelting of these coins, they were prepared by being scored on each side with a series of parallel incisions, nine lines per side on the 100 Lei coins. This scoring was done by machinery. The example that illustrates this article somehow escaped smelting after its preparation. Perhaps, it was rescued as a souvenir by a workman at the smelting facility.

The destruction of the majority of these issues explains why these coins are far scarcer than their original large issues would indicate. The 1938 100 Lei is particularly difficult to find. Scored examples, as the one shown here, are undoubtedly rare indeed.

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"CABES" AND "BOSS”

"Cabes" is the name of some African money of account, and "Boss" is another native name for some money of account (cowries). One thousand cowries were equal to one Boss Dollar, and one thousand six hundred cowries were equal to one small Cabes. Two thousand cowries were needed to make one large Cabes. When converted into an actual monetary unit, the small Cabes (1,600 cowries) was equal to one-sixteenth of an ounce of gold dust.

(Submitted by R. R. Kutcher)

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"UMPYO"

A silver coin of Korea, issued in the nineteenth year of the Emperor Tai (A.D. 1882), was called "Umpyo". These pieces were circular, but without the central square hole. Three different denomination were struck, but minting ceased in 1883. Similar coins called "Daidong Chum" were the same, but with a porcelain center on the reverse. These Daidong Chum were minted in 1882 only, but were never put into circulation. They were of the one, two and three Chum denominations also.

(Submitted by R. R. Kutcher)

'k'k'k'k'k-k'k'k'k'k

THE "HABITANT" TOKENS OF CANADA

In 1837, through an ordinance passed by the special Council, the four banks doing business in Lower Canada were authorized to issue regular bank tokens. As these tokens portray the figure of a French-Canadian farmer on the obverse, they are known as the "Habitant" tokens, and came to be recognized and accepted as a regular provincial coinage.

(Submitted by R. R. Kutcher)

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The Casting of a Cash Coin

Chris Shappell, Federal Way, Washington, NI # 2418

The famed cash coins of China, as well as other nations of Asia, were always cast with molds throughout their history, as opposed to the Western tradition of striking coins with dies. However, just how these common "cash" coins of bronze, copper, brass and iron, were cast is not well known to many non-cash collectors. The following should shed some light to one of those dark comers of numismatic knowledge - the Oriental coin casting process. It must be remembered that the casting process was dynamic and what is explained here is how it existed during the Q’ing (formerly spelled Ch’ing) Dynasty (1644-1911). Improvements had been made in this process since it was first used for cash coins centuries ago.

Casting and minting have some striking similarities. A design (character arrangement and style) must be selected. A model of that design is carved out of a light colored material, usually ivory, akin to the plaster models of the West. The models were produced in a scale slightly larger than the eventual coins with a circular hole. Once imperial approval has been achieved, the design is transferred onto a large thin slab of lead, used for its pliancy, from the ivory sample by repeated pounding with a mallet. With a suitable lead image, several individual mother coins would be cast in much the same manner as the eventual circulation coins.

Mother coins varied little from the circulation coins they produced; the characters were much sharper, the edges better defined, and dimensions more exact. Freshly cast, the mother coins carried a round hole like the sample cash. It was the duty of a "mint official" to carve the hole square by hand. Mother coins served much the same purpose as hubs to today. They were used to impress the sand in cubicles to create molds for the casting. After several acceptable mother coins were made, they would then go to the next step of manufacture.

Two or more boxes were patiently filed with compacted fine sand. Sand was a most prudent material to use in molds; it took to images of mother coins brilliantly, it allowed trapped air to escape without effecting the coins, and it was easy to re-use. A mint worker had to be very careful when using sand. If one packed their sand too tight, the more likely large air pockets would form on the coins. If one packed the sand too loose, the resulting coins would be much too heavy. The entire mold would receive a dusting of charcoal powder before the next step. As the charcoal burned, the molten metal was more likely to fill even the most diminutive voids in the characters. The result was coins with strong legends. A channel was dug down the center of one side of the mold. On either side of this channel, mother coins would be lined up edge to edge in rows several coins across. An identical process formed the opposite, or reverse, side of the mold. Brought together with careful skill, the two halves of the mold would be then tied together.

In a crucible a mint worker would conscientiously mix together the proper metallic elements - copper, zinc, tin - as specified by the emperor, into a molten slurry. Using

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a ladle small amounts of metal would be sent down the central channel until the entire mold had been filled. The multitude of coins, all connected, would be allowed to cool. These connected coins are called a "tree" for their obvious resemblance. The central channel is the thick "trunk" and the coins branch from there as "leaves".

Metal shrinks as it cools and the "tree" of cash coins could easily be removed from the molds. This destroys the molds. The individual coins are clipped from the "tree" with metal shears. At this point, we are left with a mess of coins that could go out into circulation if it wasn’t for their unattractiveness. There is a sharp line along the edge, where the two halves of the mold met, a blunt edge where the coin was connected to either another or the "trunk" of the tree, and black spots all over the surface except for where there are chunks of remaining sand. The remainder of the minting process concerns making these coins as beautiful as possible.

Though usually done before the coins were separated, a wire brush was whisked over the coins to remove lingering remainders of sand as well as to even out any unsightly bumps and excess lines on the coins’ surfaces. The square hole of the cash coin comes in handy to improve the image of the edge. All coins, after being aligned through their holes on a square stick, would have their edges filed with a rasp or ground with a stone wheel thus removing the sharp edge. If round-holed coins were lined up on a round stick, more frustration with rotating coins than smooth edges would result. To remove the black spots, several thousand coins were placed into a tub with chaff and water and then swished back and forth by a couple of particularly muscle bound mint workers for hours.

Now with nearly perfect cash, only the counting is left before distribution. Off to a counting room the coins would go to be placed into strings, or guan as the Chinese would say, of several hundred to several thousand. The coins were now ready for placement into the hands of the public.

Probably due to its inefficiency compared to the machine made struck coins of the West, cast coins died out in China and the rest of Asia around the end of the last emperor’s reign in 1911. The tremendous skill required to make several molds out of such an easily destructible material, the extra undertaking of so carefully producing mother coins, the superfluous energy required in "prettying up the coins" after being made just could not compete with the speedy new machines of Europe and America, especially when one considers that the coins were only worth one tenth of a cent! Unfortunately, the cast coin was another tradition lost to progress.

Sources

Burger, Wemer, Ch’ing Cash Until 1735 , 1976 Taipei.

About the Author

Chris Shappell is a 16 year old young numismatist who is interested in becoming a numismatic writer. He has been published recently in Numismatic News and Coin World , as well as in other local and national club publications.

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BOOK NEWS & REVIEWS

PARA 94. By Guvendik Fisekcioglu. 80 pages, 6-1/4 x 9-1/2 inches, stiff covers. Available from the author at: P.K. 665, Sisli, 80225 Istanbul, Turkey. Price is $12.00 postpaid (cash requested).

This is the eleventh volume of this well known annual which lists all the coins, banknotes, tokens, and medals struck in the Ottoman Empire since 1839 and in the Republic of Turkey since its beginning.

The rarities are clearly marked and the pricing reflects the inflation afflicting the Turkish lira since the last volume was printed. This causes valuations to be in the millions of liras because the exchange rate is now about 12,000 liras to one U.S. dollar.

Collectors will notice in the Republican coin section the entries for the 1993 regular coins from 50 to 5,000 liras, and under the "special issues," five new coins, two in gold (500,000 liras) and three in silver (50,000 liras). Pages 70 through 76 of the work contain illustrations of interesting coins and medals from previous years. In the listing of banknotes, only the 500,000 liras note is new. It features Ataturk on the face and Canakkale on the back.

The author has again succeeded in producing a very fine reference work on his country’s numismatic output which forms an excellent supplement to the Krause- Mishler’s catalogues.

Reviewed by Kenneth M. MacKenzie

EUGIUS - AUF MUZEN, MEDAILLER, MARKEN, UND PLAKETTEN. By Hdfried Speyer. German text, 155 pages, 5-1/4 x 8-1/4 inches, stiff card cover. Available from Claude Proulx, 1810 Gouin, Val David, Quebec, Canada JOT 2N0. Price is US$18.00, postpaid.

The book is an annotated catalogue of 122 medals commemorating Saint Eligius (Eloi in French) and 47 coins which he designed and minted for three successive Kings of France during his lifetime (A.D. 588-659). For each medal there is a photograph of both sides followed by background and technical data on the piece. Saint Eligius is the patron saint of numismatists, goldsmiths, medalists, and blacksmiths. He is very popular in France and Germany.

Reviewed by Jerry Remick

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MEMBER NOTICE PAGE

David Mullins, P. O. Box 17571, Nashville, TN 37217: I need help in locating a Malta 1977 1 Pound (KM-45) coin that is for sale in Uncirculated condition. If you have one for sale please let me know. Since 1977 I have never seen this coin for sale!

Gustav Lompa. Leuchterstr. 221. 51069 Koln. Germany; WANTED - Medals relating to Ottoman Empire history (persons, events). Single offers or lists welcome. Please describe and write before mailing.

Gerhard Schon, Postfach 71 09 08, D-81459, Miinchen, Germany: BUY OR

BORROW for my own reference - MODERN GOLD/SILVER COINS by the Gold/Silver Institute, from the beginning of the series in the 1960s up to the 1984 issue. Please write before mailing.

William Snyder, P. O. Box 1242, Cookeville. TN 38503: Information on error coins available, and wanted. A data base of known World mis-struck coins is being kept. Over 1400 different brockages, off-centers, double strikes, etc. are listed in detail. If you would like information on the coins of any country, or can provide information on any that you own, or have seen for sale, please write.

Ralph A. Cannito, P. Q. Box 304, Washington, NJ 07882: WANTED -

Islamic/Arabic hammered silver coinage. From 622 AD to 1900 AD; especially interested in rupees, multiple and Nazarana rupees of Afghanistan, Indian Princely States and the Mughal Empire. Also interested in Ottoman & Persian Empire silver coinage and many others. Buying one coin or a collection. Dealers and collectors offers are welcome.

Phil Wing, P. O. Drawer 58204, Cincinnati, Ohio 45258; British Coins Wanted - All Hammered silver and gold coins Fine and Better. All silver coins 1660-1760 VF or Better. All gold Guineas VF or Better. Will buy for cash or trade for other coins. Please send or write.

Gerhard Schon, Postfach 71 09 08, D-81459 Miinchen, Germany: WANTED FOR CATALOGING- ANDORRA 1960/1965 all patterns and mules of the medallic issues by Hans Schulman (25, 50 Diners). Also 1873 ANDORRAN private pattern 5 C6ntimos in bronze or nickel, 10 C6ntimos in nickel.

NI ATTRIBUTION SERVICE: See pages 224-225 of the October, 1993 issue for rules regarding sending items in for attribution, or write to the Chairman of the Attribution Service at the regular Dallas address before sending items.

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RIBBONS ON ARMS OF USSR COINS

Do you know the meaning of the ribbon bands on the shield portrayed on the obverse of USSR coins? The ribbon bands represent the number of constituent republics within the country.

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